绿色化学与环境保护

1篇全文复制如下：
绿色化学与环境保护
敖波，李建平
(1. 西昌学院 生化系，四川 西昌 615022；2. 西昌市川兴中学，四川 西昌 615021）
  【摘要】 绿色化学致力于从源头上制止污染物的生成，它研究的问题遍及化学的整个领域。本文介绍了绿色化学的概念、原则及绿色化学与环境保护的关系，并对绿色化学原理在化工生产中的应用进行了阐述。
  【关键词】绿色化学；原子经济性；环境保护
  【中图分类号】X131  【文献标识码】A  【文章编号】1673-1891(2005)04-0096-03

   近几十年来,化学科学及化学工业的迅猛发展,为人类创造了巨大的物质财富和现代文明,但“三废”的排放也对环境造成较为严重的污染，成为日益严峻的环境问题。化学面临着人类可持续发展、环境保护等的巨大挑战，如何从根本上降低、以至消除副产品或废弃物的生成，从而达到保护和改善人类赖以生存的环境，成为化学工作者面临的重大问题。绿色化学正是在这一背景下应运而生的。

1  绿色化学概述

1.1 绿色化学的内涵
绿色化学又称环境无害化学、环境友好化学、清洁化学，是指设计没有或只有尽可能小的环境负作用，并且在技术上和经济上可行的化学品和化学过程。绿色化学主张在通过化学转换获取新物质的过程中充分利用每个原子，具有“原子经济性”。其最大特点在于它是在始端就采用实现污染预防的科学手段，因而过程和终端均为零排放或零污染。因此它既能够充分利用资源，又能够实现防止污染，是发展生态经济和工业的关键。
1.2 绿色化学的基本原则
Anastas等在《绿色化学—理论和应用》一书中提出了绿色化学的12条原则，这12条原则是：（1）防止废物的生成比其生成后再处理更好；（2）设计合成方法应使生产过程中所采用的原料最大量地进入产品之中：（3）设计合成方法时，无论原料、中间产品还是最终产品，均应对人体健康和环境无毒、无害（包括毒性极小）；（4）化工产品设计时，必须使其具有高效的功能，同时也要减少其毒性；（5）应尽可能避免使用溶剂、分离试剂等助剂，如不可避免，也要选用无毒无害的助剂；（6）合成方法必须考虑过程中能耗对成本与环境的影响，应设法降低能耗，最好采用在常温常压下的合成方法；（7）在技术可行和经济合理的前提下，采用可再生资源代替消耗性资源；（8）在可能的条件下，尽量不用不必要的衍生物，如限制性基团、保护/去保护作用、临时调变物理/化学工艺；（9）合成方法中采用高选择性的催化剂比使用化学计量助剂更优越；（10）化工产品要设计成在其使用功能终结后，它不会永存于环境中，要能分解成可降解的无害产物；（11）进一步发展分析方法，对危险物质在生成前实行在线监测和控制；（12）要选择化学生产过程的物质使化学意外事故（包括渗透、爆炸、火灾等）的危险性降低到最小程度。
从这12条原则可以看出，绿色化学涉及化学反应的全过程，它不仅要求从末端控制污染，而且要求一体化预防污染。它第一次着眼于防止污染物的形成，致力于最终使污染物处理成为不必要，从而从源头上控制了污染。

2 绿色化学原则在资源与环保方面的应用

从绿色化学的目标来看，有两个方面必须重视：一是开发以“原子经济性”为基本原则的新化学反应过程；另一个是改进现有的化学工业，减少和消除污染。
2．所使用的英文数据库（Elsevier SDOL数据库）
检索策略：(pub-date > 1998 and TITLE-ABSTR-KEY(Green chemistry)) and environmental protection)
检索到4篇切题的文章，如下：
Green Chemistry  绿色化学
Author: John C. Warner, Amy S. Cannon and Kevin M. Dye
Available online 21 September 2004.
Abstract
A grand challenge facing government, industry, and academia in the relationship of our technological society to the environment is reinventing the use of materials. （在科技社会与环境的联系是原料再利用方面，政府、工业和学术界面临着一个重大的挑战）To address this challenge, collaboration from an interdisciplinary group of stakeholders will be necessary. Traditionally, the approach to risk management of materials and chemicals has been through inerventions intended to reduce exposure to materials that are hazardous to health and the environment. In 1990, the Pollution Prevention Act encouraged a new tact-elimination of hazards at the source. An emerging approach to this grand challenge seeks to embed the diverse set of environmental perspectives and interests in the everyday practice of the people most responsible for using and creating new materials—chemists. The approach, which has come to be known as Green Chemistry, intends to eliminate intrinsic hazard itself, rather than focusing on reducing risk by minimizing exposure. This chapter addresses the representation of downstream environmental stakeholder interests in the upstream everyday practice that is reinventing chemistry and its material inputs, products, and waste as described in the “12 Principles of Green Chemistry”.

Author Keywords: Green chemistry; Pollution prevention; Benign by design; Reducing intrinsic hazard
Plasma chemistry as a tool for green chemistry, environmental analysis and waste management  等离子体化学作为绿色化学的手段用于环境分析与废弃物的处理
Abstract
The applications of plasma chemistry to environmental problems and to green chemistry are emerging fields that offer unique opportunities for advancement.（等离子体化学在环境问题和绿色化学中的应用是新兴领域，这个领域提供独特的发展机会）There has been substantial progress in the application of plasmas to analytical diagnostics and to waste reduction and waste management. This review discusses the chemistry and physics necessary to a basic understanding of plasmas, something that has been missing from recent technical reviews. The current status of plasmas in environmental chemistry is summarized and emerging areas of application for plasmas are delineated. Plasmas are defined and discussed in terms of their properties that make them useful for environmental chemistry. Information is drawn from diverse fields to illustrate the potential applications of plasmas in analysis, materials modifications and hazardous waste treatments.
Author Keywords: Plasma; Analysis; Waste treatment; Materials modification

The ecological perspective in chemical engineering  化学工程中的生态学观点
Abstract
Complexity issues in the ecological aspects of chemical engineering are of two kinds: the mutual interactions of many multi-scale systems and the lack of consilience in the objectives of different disciplines that consider the economic, philosophical, cultural, and scientific and engineering aspects, respectively. （生态学关于化学工程方面的论点较复杂，分为两种：许多多规模系统的共有的相互作用和各个学科的目的缺少一致性，这些学科有经济的，哲学的，文化的，科学的和工程方面的）This paper discusses the second kind of complexity and the ecological issues in the different disciplines. Economic value, as expressed by market price, depends on whether limits on resources and the Earth's services due to the scale of human technological activities are taken into account. Human activities relative to the Earth's ecology require sustainability consideration. Two important stands on sustainability are discussed. Mainstream sustainability is a stand for continued economic growth to foster advances in technology to overcome the limits of the Earth. It requires technological activities to follow green chemistry and green engineering principles to develop innovations that are ecologically considerate. Environmental sustainability is a stand to stay within forecasted limits in the resources and renew ability capacity of the Earth. The technology for this further includes using the principles of industrial ecology to locate ways to use wastes and recycle products as source materials for other processes to make and close material cycles. Chemical engineering innovations for increased atomic utilization of reactants, efficiency in energy use, dematerialization, non-toxicity, recyclability, and creative systemic cycling of materials for waste management are good for the ecology. Case studies are given showing the utility of following the principles developed for good ecological practice.
Author Keywords: Environment; Pollution; Economics; Energy; Ecology; Sustainability

Green Chemistry: Environment, Economics, and Competitiveness  绿色化学：环境，经济和竞争
Abstract
The concept of sustainability has generated much discussion and has been incrementally induced in corporate thinking.（可持续发展的概念发生许多争论和大大地引发了共同的思想）However, implementation of changes in industrial processes, products, and practices has progressed at a slow pace. One reason for this is the enduring myth that economic profitability must always be sacrificed to achieve environmental goals. However, innovative technologies have been developed that contribute to improving both the environmental and economic corporate bottom line. This paper highlights examples of the successful implementation of such technologies and the benefits that these strategies have provided.

1篇全文复制如下：
Green chemistry

John C. Warner, , Amy S. Cannon and Kevin M. Dye

Center for Green Chemistry, University of Massachusetts-Boston, 100 Morrissey Boulevard, Boston, MA 02125-3393, USA

Available online 21 September 2004.

Abstract
A grand challenge facing government, industry, and academia in the relationship of our technological society to the environment is reinventing the use of materials. To address this challenge, collaboration from an interdisciplinary group of stakeholders will be necessary. Traditionally, the approach to risk management of materials and chemicals has been through inerventions intended to reduce exposure to materials that are hazardous to health and the environment. In 1990, the Pollution Prevention Act encouraged a new tact-elimination of hazards at the source. An emerging approach to this grand challenge seeks to embed the diverse set of environmental perspectives and interests in the everyday practice of the people most responsible for using and creating new materials—chemists. The approach, which has come to be known as Green Chemistry, intends to eliminate intrinsic hazard itself, rather than focusing on reducing risk by minimizing exposure. This chapter addresses the representation of downstream environmental stakeholder interests in the upstream everyday practice that is reinventing chemistry and its material inputs, products, and waste as described in the “12 Principles of Green Chemistry”.

Author Keywords: Green chemistry; Pollution prevention; Benign by design; Reducing intrinsic hazard
 

Article Outline
1. A grand challenge
2. Emerging trends
3. The transformational power of Green Chemistry
4. An illustrative case in Green Chemistry
5. The principles of Green Chemistry
5.1. Prevent waste
5.2. Atom economy
5.3. Less hazardous synthesis
5.4. Safer chemicals
5.5. Safer solvents and auxiliaries
5.6. Energy efficiency
5.7. Renewable feedstocks
5.8. Reduce derivatives
5.9. Catalysis
5.10. Design for degradation
5.11. Real-time analysis for pollution prevention
5.12. Inherently safer chemistry for accident prevention
6. The prospective relationship of EIA and Green Chemistry
References

 
1. A grand challenge
There is a grand challenge facing government, industry, and academia in the relationship of our technological society to the environment—Reinventing the Use of Materials (National Research Council, 2001). Addressing this challenge will require grounding in the insights, desires, and uncertainties of an interdisciplinary group of stakeholders. Input from state and private research investment organizations, policy makers and risk managers, business leaders and consumers, and the scientists, designers, and engineers that serve these interests must all be engaged. Practitioners of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) seek to accommodate this breadth of stakeholder interests. Heretofore, the approach to risk management of materials/chemicals has been articulated in intervention approaches intended to reduce exposure to materials that are hazardous to health and the environment. In 1990, the Pollution Prevention Act encouraged a new tact-elimination of hazards at the source.

An emerging approach to this grand challenge seeks to embed the diverse set of environmental perspectives and interests in the everyday practice (Heiskanen, 2001) of the people most responsible for using and creating new materials—chemists. “This role for chemistry is not generally recognized by government or the public. In fact, chemicals, chemistry, and chemists are actually seen by many as the cause of the problems” (Clark, 1999). Indeed, the chemical industry releases more hazardous waste to the environment than any other industry sector, and more in total than is released by the next nine sectors combined (Anastas and Warner, 1998).

The approach, which has come to be known as Green Chemistry,1 intends to eliminate intrinsic hazard itself, rather than focusing on reducing risk by minimizing exposure. This chapter addresses the representation of downstream environmental stakeholder interests in the upstream everyday practice that is reinventing chemistry and its material inputs, products, and waste. Guidelines on adoption of this approach are portrayed in the “12 Principles of Green Chemistry” (Anastas and Warner, 1998).

Green Chemistry is diffusing throughout the chemical industry (SIC 28, NAICS 325), and includes use and development of new substances and processes that impact other sectors such as agriculture, healthcare, automotive, aerospace, energy, electronics, and advanced materials. Key questions for the reader are: “can Green Chemistry incorporate the breadth of environmental interests far upstream from EIA's normal points of intervention? (McDonald and Brown, 1995)”; “does Green Chemistry accommodate or anticipate the interests of EIA sufficiently?” and “what are the prospects for the relationship of EIA and Green Chemistry?”

2. Emerging trends
The role of Green Chemistry is intimately related to broad emerging trends in policy, regulations and incentives, industry initiatives, and science and professional developments involved in reinventing the use of materials. Understanding the challenge and prospective impact of Green Chemistry depends on some familiarity with the context of its adoption and practice. This section outlines the scale of R&D in the chemical industry, the dynamics of chemical innovation, and the interplay of industry, government, and professional societies and NGOs.

The chemical industry accounts for 7% of global income, 9% of global trade, US$1.5 trillion in sales in 1998, with 80% of world output produced by 16 countries. Production is projected to increase 85% by 2020 compared to 1995 levels, roughly in pace with GDP growth, but at twice the per capita intensity. There will be strong market penetration by countries other than these 16, especially in commodity chemicals (OECD, 2001). Over the past half century, the largest growth in volume of any category of materials has been in petrochemical-based plastics; and in terms of revenue—pharmaceuticals have surged over the past two decades. Overall production is shifting from a predominance of commodity chemicals to fine/specialty chemicals and those for the life sciences. In the U.S., the chemical industry contributes 5% of GDP, 12% of the value added to GDP by all U.S. Manufacturing and is the nation's top exporter (Lenz and Lafrance, 1996).

The prospective practice of Green Chemistry is primarily in R&D, including scale-up. R&D investment in the chemical industry is about 5% of gross output (Rao et al., 1999). Total R&D spending doubled between 1987 and 1997. Investment in R&D of chemicals, which is predominantly funded by corporations, is at or near the top of the list of all industries, for all categories (Landau and Rosenberg, 1991). Green Chemistry can also be employed in other industries regarding materials.

Much of the chemical industry is capital-intensive, based on economies of scale, and thus large companies are typically slow to convert to new technologies. The dynamics of advance in the chemical industry, as for non-assembled products in general, is dominated by increasing scale, reducing costs, and increasing demand that spurs process innovation rather than breakthrough product innovations. The Federal portion of R&D funding is crucial to advance of Green Chemistry as much of private funding is directed to incremental advance of existing approaches.

The pattern of process innovation is punctuated by occasional discontinuities of enabling technology followed by long periods of incrementalism (Utterback, 1996 and Stobaugh, 1988). Process innovation in the chemical sector is often risky, expensive, and difficult, requires a broad combination of skills, and takes a long time (Freeman, 1986). In order to frame expectations regarding the adoption rate of Green Chemistry, at an industry level, the comparative rates of evolution of industries are insightful. One of the fastest evolving industries is personal computers with a product technology changeover of less than 6 months and a process technology cycle of 2–4 years; semiconductors are 1–2 and 3–10 years, respectively. At other end of the spectrum is the petrochemical industry with a new product technology cycle of 10–20 and 20–40 years for major process change. The pharmaceutical industry stands midway with a product cycle of 7–15 years and process cycle of 5–10 years (Fine, 1998).

While there is a substantial concentration of production by large multinational firms, producing some chemicals in volumes of millions of tons per year, over 95% of the 50,000 chemicals made in the U.S. are produced by companies with fewer than 50 employees (Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturer's Association, 2000), and mostly less than 1000 tons per year (OECD, 2001). There are roughly 3000 chemical companies in the U.S. (1750 in industrial chemicals, 1225 in pharmaceuticals) and about 6000 companies producing other chemical products. In the U.S. Chemical Industry, there are about 89,000 R&D chemists, engineers and technicians focused on innovation (Lenz and Lafrance, 1996). The context of R&D and innovation in chemistry can be seen as benefiting from huge economic drivers, leveraged by a fairly small number of people, with diverse opportunities in small-scale initiatives (Poliakoff et al., 2002).

课题综述
化学工业污染的原因及特点：化学工业是对环境中的各种资源进行化学处理和转化加工的生产部门， 其产品和废弃物从化学组成上讲是多样化的， 而且数量也相当大， 这些废弃物含量在一定浓度时大多是有害的， 有的还是剧毒物质， 进入环境就会造成污染。有些化工产品在使用过程中也会引起一些污染， 甚至比生产本身所造成的污染更为严重， 更为广泛。
环境污染形成的原因很多， 就化工企业来说，主要是在生产经营过程中排放出来的废气、废水、废渣， 简称工业“三废”给环境造成了污染。化工企业“三废”污染物主要来源于原料开采、加工和贮存； 生产和辅助生产过程； 产成品的运输和使用过程以及各类事故等。如化工原料矿产的开采过程中， 都要产生大量的固体废物， 污染水质， 毁坏良田； 化工企业在生产过程和辅助生产过程所产生的三废”数量最多， 且成分复杂。这主要是我国多数化工企业因工艺装置落后， 生产技术水平和管理水平低， 对资源和能源的利用率低所造成的； 而原材料、产成品在运输、贮存过程中造成流失污染环境，多是因管理不善所致。如运输过程中因包装材料破损使液体外流、粉状物质随风飞散等。储存过程中的物料质变或因保管条件不当发生其它化学反应，使原料和产品变成废物。在使用过程中， 如农药、化肥在使用之后能在环境中长期保存， 不易分解， 同时能随食物链不断浓缩危害其它生物和人类， 对环境和水体都能造成不同程度的污染。
总之， 化工企业污染有以下几个特点： （１） 污染种类多， 气、液、固三相都有， 仅排放的气体污染物就有粉尘、烟气、酸雾、蒸气、气体等。（２） 污染范围广， 凡是有化工生产的地方， 就有污染存在， 废水就近排放江河， 造成大片水域严重污染。（３）污染毒性大， 如氰、酚、砷、汞、镉和铅都有剧毒、致癌、致畸、致突变的作用， 并多数具有远期作用。（４） 排污量大， 成分复杂， 水质， 水量不稳定， 易燃、易爆、剧毒气体较多， 发生事故易造成大面积污染和严重的火灾、爆炸、中毒事件。
近年来,随着环境污染的严重和公众对环境问题的关心,人们开始对化学工业提出了质疑,对化学科学产生了怀疑,甚至认为化学是环境污染的罪魁祸首,从而使化学的声誉下降,面对这种形势,我们一方面要向公众宣传化学在科学中的地位和其在衣食住行、医药卫生等方面对人类的贡献,同时承认化学发展给人类带来的负面影响;另一方面还要积极向公众宣传绿色化学。绿色化学不但具有重大的社会、环境、经济意义,还可以避免化学的负作用,这也显示出了人的能动性。绿色化学体现了化学科学、技术和社会的相互联系、相互作用,是化学高度发展以及社会对化学发展的作用产物,对化学本身而言是一个新阶段的到来。绿色化学不是一门独立的学科,它是一种战略方针,一种指导思想,一种研究政策。
正在不断发展的绿色化学领域,对于我们既是机遇又是挑战,一方面我们要新的科学知识武装自己,另一方面还需要提高思想意识。以技术为基础解决问题的方法是先进的,但无论是在技术方面还是政策方面,都还需要人的责任感去最大限度地实现。
检索心得
在这次专题信息调研中，我从确定一个课题，到检索信息，整理，经历了差不多一个星期。因为我是化学工程与工艺专业的，再加上最近在学《化工环境工程概论》，了解到化学工业是对环境中的各种资源进行化学处理和转化加工的生产部门， 其产品和废弃物从化学组成上讲是多样化的， 而且数量也相当大， 这些废弃物含量在一定浓度时大多是有害的， 有的还是剧毒物质， 进入环境就会造成污染。有些化工产品在使用过程中也会引起一些污染， 甚至比生产本身所造成的污染更为严重， 更为广泛。
我想读这个专业的学生有必要对绿色化学与环境保护进行深入了解。所以我选择了这个课题。在检索信息当中，我发觉有很多与环境保护、绿色化学有关的文献，从中选出7篇切合题意的文献，对其进行整理。转到英文数据库（我使用Elsevier SDOL数据库），找到有大约27篇有关绿色化学的文献，从中选出切合题意的文献3篇。通过这次检索信息的练习，使我对信息的检索能力有了很大的提高。
找出来的信息要经过整理，才能成为我所要的信息。于是我对我找出的信息进行一翻处理，整理出了这份检索报告